‘LANGUAGE AND TECHNIQUE’ FOR POPULAR WILDLIFE SCIENCE

Simple tools and easy interpretations can help a lot for popularizing science, particularly when it is in the kind that is off the main academics. Here are a few experiences, innovations and lessons under Crocodile Conservation Scheme and Project Tiger which are two nation-wide projects for scientific management of wildlife resource.

Field practices in these projects have largely been successful as the science of Wildlife Conservation has been explained and implemented with appropriate range of field-languages and techniques suitable for various levels. It has been done with (a) the staffs at the grass root level who strive to translate theoretical recommendations into field actions, (b) the local people who understand just the simple ways of the nature that has nurtured their character to use and protect the resources for generations, and (c) the students who wish that the Wildlife Science steers them through a meaningful career. (d) The remaining public at large and the media are reached with the entire package of approaches.

Wildlife Management prescriptions are strongly directed and improved from experience and lessons learnt in the field. At least three other components which keep changing and interacting on each other also determine the course of management activities. These components are the (a) ecological factors influencing the habitat of wildlife species, (b) the changing or adaptive behaviour of wildlife species, and (c) eco-friendly accommodation of the demand and expectations of various anthropogenic elements. All these components have shaped the growth of the science of wildlife management.

Of late I fear, to a certain extent ‘Wildlife Management Practices’ is digressing away from the realities of requirements in the field. Instead of laying emphasis on indigenous innovations Wildlife Studies and Management are getting studded with experiments and recommendations applicable to wildlife from very different biomes in other parts of the globe. As a result, perhaps the Wildlife Science is heading to become an abstract science that is not a true refection of Indian natural history or wildlife biology. There is an increasing trend for applying techniques that appear to overshadow the management of ‘wild living beings’. Modern gadgets and statistical extrapolations should be used for improving interpretations and not as a matter of convenience to replace field rigours. It is misleading and dangerous to get satisfied with answers to everything out of very little field data.

One of the many reasons for this trend is rooted to a kind of infatuation reflected through dependency and over-use of virtual mathematical models. Computers and remote sensors are able to provide choice for studies without hazardous field camping. Another reason is the administrative and financial ease for experimenting in the field such costly products which are results out of scientific and industrial growth in the electronic sectors. These are fine as supplements that are short-lived enthusiasm for adding luster. These shouldn’t sacrifice the most established and familiar basics in natural history and wildlife biology.

A Popular Subject Easily Elicits Public Cooperation

In 1952 the ‘Central Board for Wildlife’ was constituted as conservation of wildlife is an important, popular and widely advocated subject of importance for human survival. Later, the Board was renamed as the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) and now it is the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), with parallel Boards at the State level. The members of the Board are drawn from a wide range of public and professional profile. These members need to be told in simple terms what is all happening in the wildlife sector.

In accordance with recommendations of the Board we have celebration of the Wildlife Week, coinciding with the birthday of Mahatma Gandhi. At this time there are publicity through lectures, print and electronic media, film shows, guided nature tours, and essay competitions in schools and colleges. Other activities that popularise and educate different target groups about the Wildlife Science are ‘nature clubs’ in educational institutions, and the subject of environmental conservation in the syllabus adopted by the NCERT (National Council of Education Research and Training). The University Grants Commission (UGC) recommended for setting up of faculties on wildlife education in selected universities but the curriculum appears to have only a few takers. The North Orissa University runs a self-financing MSc course in Wildlife Conservation and Management.

School Students are the Most Receptive to Conservation Message

During 1994-1997 we started to conduct a number of 3-days long nature camps in Similipal Tiger Reserve. There were different participant groups,--- the undergraduate students, college faculties, members from the civil society with various professional profiles, and the school students. The purpose was to give a type of once-in-lifetime exposure in the forest, and demonstrate the various wildlife conservation tools and techniques including studying of tracks and signs. The significant lesson for the management was that the High School children constituted the best target group as these were receptive as well as meaningfully responsive.

The language of interaction and the curriculum of a nature camp were very carefully drawn up. Every part of their time during trekking or discussion gave the participants guided orientation and information. The Forest Guards, Foresters, Range Officers and watchers were very enthusiastic during those days when they could share their life and experience in the forest with wildlife. The language for communication of the art and science of wildlife conservation was simple, interesting and adventurous for the staff and their audience. I have seen, some of the children (students) becoming emotional before the staff when it was time for departure from the forest.

Successful Conservation and Research Go Hand-In-Hand

‘Successful conservation and research go hand in hand’. That was the dictum of approach in crocodile conservation programme launched in 1974-75, and it showed the approach for other wildlife conservation projects. There were two main conservation projects in India during 1970s and 1980s. The approach for handling research was different in the beginning. Fresh pass outs from Universities were selected for crocodile conservation work. But in Tiger Reserves the Field Directors handled research initially. Later, Research Officers worked under concerned Protected Area managers or the Chief Wildlife Wardens.

The scientific personnel involved in crocodile conservation programme, project tiger and other wildlife conservation activities in situ and ex situ have produced the bulk of information and literature available today about the target species and the activities for conservation and management. Adminisration has come to recognize that research personnel form the assured base for access to information. Most often these research persons carry out most of the interpretation work for a project. Special Projects like that for vulture breeding is awaiting a suitable research person to remain in charge of it.

Grooming Authors Who Work and Write

My professor from University days, Professor B. K. Behura says research is incomplete without a publication. Yes, unless observations are published, a new researcher joining at some later stage wastes days or years in rediscovering what is already known. At this stage come the aspects like authorship of an article or a research paper, and the choice for a journal.

Considering the actual role of a researcher and the need for sustainability of the pursuit for popularization of scientific research, authorship has to be given due consideration. Administrators or technocrats who adorn chairs for supervision need to be open hearted in giving credit. A scientist often works just for the shake of recognition!

I was recently writing my reaction in response to a blog about the not very happy experience for authorship status like first, second, third, etc. in a publication. The contention is bout who will be the first author, and what order should be followed upto the last author. In scientific laboratories some kind of understanding seems to have prevailed. This is not true in non-research organisations, where the principal or prime researcher normally brings into his fold of confidence as many ‘authors’ as possible. At the end the authorship credit may appear to be a hierarchical testament under the title of the paper.

When it is a management prescription it is, however, a good idea to have that kind of authorship. People who matter get encouraged and also implement its advantages. Nevertheless, I have also noticed that although I have many coauthors during the course of my 36years of research, very seldom have they produced a technical publication even in their next posting. I have a notion that publication potential is everywhere and in every posting of a person.

During Post-Graduation it was training and, therefore, customary to follow the hierarchy or age-seniority in a research paper. I have taken the facts in that spirit. Things were different after MSc. In this context I must pay my tribute to one person– Dr H. R. Bustard, the FAO Consultant in India for Crocodile Conservation programme. The project started during 1970s, and there I started my professional career. Dr Bustard was the field guide and non-official PhD guide for me. He had issued a circular very early about the principle to be followed for authorship of technical papers. If it was equal contribution starting from an idea to experimentation or data collection and writing, the authorship was alphabetical, though Dr Bustard had the alphabetical advantage over me. For other instances, depending on contributions the first authorship was shared among us.

That was a very healthy practice. Other coresearchers were also happy with that. It got flouted when I had to write with (for) others. Yet, I always expected, sometime somewhere somebody should bring my name to the first, or while giving a talk or powerpoint presentation at least used a ‘plural term’ to indicate that the analysis was done with others in the administrative set up. Very seldom did it happen, if it ever did. That sometimes hurts a field researcher, and it dampens the spirit of continuing the pursuit of writing for popularization of science!

Where Should I Publish My Work!

The year of start, the international stature of the wildlife project and the locations for my field work were such that most of the observations were new and worth reporting or publishing. Out of over 250 write ups by me only about a dozen may be overseas publications. Others are in Indian journals but with overseas circulation. I always exercised my own choice and option for a journal. I have chosen the journal in such a way that the publication reaches the right audience or the right user.

When I am writing about a new technique which field foresters are to use, I choose Indian Forester which reaches all Divisional Forest offices of India and many desks overseas. When it is a biological note on an Indian species I have chosen the Journal of Bombay Natural History or Hornbill. When the observations or discussions have implications in captive management of animals in India I chose the Zoos’ Print. A very old time journal is Cheetal published by the Wildlife Preservation Society of India, Dehradun. These are very widely circulated and established journals for wildlife matter. The WWF Newsletters, the IUCN Specialist Group Newsletters and Sanctuary-Asia are some of the other publications for submitting write ups.

In those days, there was no ‘impact factor’ of a journal, and there was nothing like internet to browse and search. I had to build my own library. For the last four decades I have been carrying bulks of paper wherever I went. I came to know about impact factor when my daughter started publishing her work on nano medicines and discuss with me issues relating to it while selecting a journal for submission of papers. In modern days the ‘impact factors’ seem to be the basis for judging the scientific status of a scientist.

Inspired, I searched the net for any possible impact factor given to my journals, but no. My journals, although very special in their kind and used by field workers, had nothing like an impact factor. I am not aware, what exactly is the situation today. I cannot comment on medical science research, which has global implications. And the trend is changing in the world of research.

What I drive to say is that present-day wildlife scientists are competing to gather ‘impact factors’ through publication of their data overseas, but its utility is often lost to actual field level users. Therefore, where field research involves natural history or techniques for sanctuary management, one must not worry where the journal is published or what is it’s impact factor; but must think whether the contents of the writing reaches the field staff and field biologist who will benefit from this and shall not spend time in rediscovering what has already been discovered. They should instead carry the work ahead from the point where it is left at that moment. In this respect there should be a mention about the open access journals on the internet these days. These are very good, very quick, available on the net, and perhaps with some impact factors, if some one is bothered about it.

Institution Heads and Administrators who are assessing their wildlife scientists for promotion or a higher scale should not be fussy about the impact factor. Instead mechanisms should be devised to assess usefulness of the research in the field. Unless this is done, wildlife science will have a difficult road for poularisation.

Field-Translation of Professional Lessons from Ingenious Masters

As a fresher in wildlife research I had the first opportunity to listen to Mr. Saroj Raj Choudhury when he explained near a stream along Tikarpada-Purunakote road on how to interpret hooves marks indicating stampede behaviour of a herd of spotted deer. The herd might have heard or sighted a predator, perhaps the tiger. Through that, Mr Choudhury was giving the basic guidance on how a practitioner of wildlife research should remain alert for visual signs as well as smell and sound to make his field studies fruitful and safe.

During my work in the Mahanadi I had nearly six and a half years of field work with the help of Raja Behera and the team comprising his nephew Prafulla and son Amulya. All three were engaged as Gharial Guards at Tikarpada, as a strategy towards demonstrating ‘people’s involvement in crocodile conservation. Many other experienced persons like Narottam and Shiba joined as Gharial Guards later. All of them were boatmen and fishermen by profession. They were able to negotiate their narrow long wooden boat on the waters of Mahanadi along the downstream or upstream or in high flood with as much ease and comfort as they did it during low waters of winter and summer. I had my first lessons of rowing a boat from Prafulla and Amulya.

More important, from Raja and others I also learnt how to spot and confirm the sighting of a crocodile on water surface or on sand banks. Then, there were training sessions by Dr Bustard on how to eye-estimate the length of crocodiles from a distance.

Those were initiations which kept me water-borne and study crocodiles. Rest of the happenings in my career demonstrated that indeed ‘necessity is the mother of invention’. I wanted to judge the size of the crocodile from just the portion of the head that remained surfacing on water or the various kinds of tale telling spoors of a crocodile that had basked on sand banks. Then I devised the methods for size estimation from body spoor. Similarly, was the invention of the technique to individually identify hundreds of crocodiles from their tail-scute colour pattern. These are simple field techniques that keep the science accessible, usable and popular.

Field Techniques Have to be Comprehensible in Implementation and Interpretation

One of the major scientific activities in wildlife management is census of wildlife species, at least a few indicator or flagship species, which can indicate the condition or happenings in the entire habitat. The results of census attract the attention of the public, media and the concerned administration. Census results form an easy and direct access to the story of performance of the project on species conservation.

Observing wildlife in natural conditions is not easy because wild animals have learnt to avoid threats or disturbances. That is their strategy and adaptation for survival. The task is more difficult when ground vegetation is dense and high. Determining the exact numbers of wild animals is a difficult technical requirement but has to be carried out with man power available within the Forest Department. By conducting the census the staffs get a first hand feel of the status of the animals inhabiting their jurisdiction, and have a sense of belongingness. Therefore, the technique has to be staff-friendly, something which they can understand, implement and interpret.

For every occasion of wildlife census in Similipal, about 25 participants from different parts of the state and a few from other states and even overseas join the staffs as non-official volunteers. They all belong to very different walks of life. They are given orientation training about the method of census and the jungle-etiquettes. They live with Forest Guards or watchers in tree-top machans or Beat-Camps and carry out field work during the entire period of census. Again, some of them come back for analysis and interpretation of data, and drawing of spatial distribution map of the species counted. For tiger and leopard they become conversant in pugmark tracking method and for elephants it is direct sighting.

A few of these participants have chanced into my office after several years and interacted with me. In these years some of them have reached new heights of career excellence but they continue to be passionate as before. They have expressed that the visit they had to Similipal has left a permanent impression in their mind and action. I feel that the level of interactions with them and the quality of data they handled were responsible for such lasting memory. The Science of Wildlife Conservation has to be easy and understandable through simple biological explanations and the application of common logics.

Some lessons and guidelines

There is no shortcut in Wildlife Science. It has to be backed with full quota of rigorous field exercises carried out locally in the heat or frost, soiled knees or knee-deep humus. While popularising Wildlife Science some of the lessons learnt and that may form recommended guidelines are as follows.

• The staffs of the wildlife organization who implement the project in the field must feel themselves a part of the science that is in practice, and should be able to take pride in explaining the subject and the related activities hey are doing. These staffs include grass root level persons like the Forest Guards as well as Research Scholars who join with career ambitions.
• The people who live within the forest or its fringe who have already contributed a great deal of traditional knowledge, should be comfortable with the new tools and participate in various management actions directly or indirectly, with a sense of belongingness.
• The spectra of administrators, intelligentsia in the society, public representatives, media persons and other stake-holding organizations, who too play a substantial role in sustenance of pursuits linked with ‘Wildlife Science’ must understand the language of the science and be able to convincingly explain these to others in apropos of their own activities.
• In order to achieve the above objectives the Wildlife Conservation Project should have effective monitoring mechanisms.

SCIENTIFIC TRANSPARENCY AND MANAGEMENT: FROM EXPERIENCE OF TIGER CENSUS

03 April 2011

A few days back the result of monitoring tiger was released in New Delhi. Developed on the foothold of a concerted and sustained criticism since 1990s of the previous results and the 33-years old method of census of tiger, the new method and the results, nonetheless, generated a lot of discussions and objections during 2008, when the product of the process started in 2005 were released for managers to use, and field staff to understand.

While the issues were not settled and managers were adopting their own approaches to answer public forums, the new result of 2011 showed an increase in adult population by 295 tigers. That is a matter which appears to cheer about. This, however, also continues to raise new questions, and aspects about deficiencies in the new method, its faithful and complete implementation in the field, a similar level of analysis, and the acceptability of the results to the field staff and managers. As expected, the results have engendered another spree of discussion in the local media, in print as well as in electronics.

I have started to realise that apparently the transparency of a scientific method needs to be given a back-seat in certain cases. The details about a population, the details about their spatial occupancy may cause managerial hurdles that spring up from poachers, or some unwarranted inconveniences which are difficult to overcome for smooth management.

Hence, the gross densities in place of absolute numbers with population composion, a landscape in place of finer aspects of spatial occupancy and movement areas, etc may take over as new norms of acceptable preferences.

This then leaves me to ponder, should a scientist with his innumerable collaborators in the field spend years of hazardous hard field work and irreparable sacrifices in pursuing scientific truth and in developing a technique that reveals so much details of the ground situation that it is fit only to be shelved back to obscurity!

ECOTOURISM WITHOUT CONFLICT IN WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

Ecotourism has already made its presence felt as a fast-spreading essential component, linked to areas that have otherwise made marks for wildlife conservation. But the implementation of ecotourism objectives has not been able to create a niche that is acceptable without dispute or conflict with the objectives of wildlife conservation. Here, the term ‘wildlife conservation’ is used for the group of activities meaning ‘wildlife, biodiversity or nature conservation’.

Ecotourism is necessary because first, it is one of the media to highlight the tangible and intangible benefits of wildlife conservation, and second, it is one of the acceptable sources of earning some revenue for the wildlife organization which is otherwise termed as an expenditure department that (only) spends funds for various activities.

Ecotourism objectives and approaches have to be sustainable and compatible with wildlife conservation, without causing any conflict with short term or long term objectives of wildlife conservation.

Confirming to the synonyms of the term ‘wildlife’, and the objectives for achieving compatible and sustainable ecotourism, the areas where wildlife-oriented ecotourism should be implemented stand in the following order of priority.

(1) Areas showing fruits of biodiversity under Participatory Forest Management

(2) Wildlife Corridors or Habitat-linkages

(3) Periphery of wildlife sanctuaries

(4) Wildlife Sanctuaries.

In practice, however, the order that is being followed starts and ends with sanctuaries. The areas where wildlife-based ecotourism have been aimed till now include only the Sanctuaries. That appears to be primarily because of convenience in compliance. A base of infrastructure and a set of staff are already available in sanctuaries. But willingness or ad hoc arrangements for sharing of resource of staff or infrastructure for ‘ecotourism’ is neither in the interest of wildlife conservation nor in the long term sustainability of ecotourism objectives. The required number of staffs for wildlife work have to be positioned first, and then a separate set of staff have to be deployed and suitably trained for specific ecotourism activities, that are compatible and do not encroach into the cultural values of local people. Children who normally kept away from visitors, or should have been in a school, seem to be shedding their inhibitions and running behind jeeps or gyrating around a camping site awaiting the camp to pack off. These are, sadly, indicators of eroding cultural values because of proliferating ecotourism close to villages inside sanctuaries.

Tourism in sanctuaries are governed by ‘tourism season’ and tourism route’. Therefore, with ‘round-the-year-tourism’ in mind, attention has to shift away from the sanctuary, to its periphery, to its linkage-corridors, or to the adjoining villages where people are excelling in participatory forest management. Adequate survey and assessment is necessary to identify locations, judge the potentialities, develop meticulous plans and implement the projects for screening serious ‘eco-tourists’ and reduce burden on sanctuaries. People willing to devote time and go for wildlife-oriented ecotourism can proceed from periphery to the sanctuary. Places used for camping should be away from places used by ‘wildlife’. The wilderness or ‘wild’ (natural) responses should not be robbed away from wildlife on the road to promoting tourism as ‘ecotourism’.

‘Ecotourism’ concept has to be kept at a place where its impacts are felt to the minimum inside Sanctuaries and National Parks, which are primarily designed for biodiversity conservation.

BUILDING A RESEARCH LIBRARY FOR FIELD AND LIFE

05 March 2009 (Thursday) / updated 05 Dec 2010 (Sunday)

My personal library is the result of my own studentship (BSc Hons. 1970-1972, MSc 1972-1974) and research career in wildlife/environment/ecology (1975 to present). So, over 36 years…

Its uniqueness and strength lie in its variety, range and archaic to modern nature of wildlife / biodiversity-related titles and publications.

From my Graduation days I have nurtured an ambition to have my own library, so that I do not feel deficient for any reference anywhere anytime, even while staying for six years on the banks of Mahanadi or three in Chambal or sixteen in Similipal, or at such hours as the middle of the night, searching a reference with a kerosene lantern light.

And, my collections have proven that worth during my studentship and research career that is in its 4^th decade from Graduation.

I have collected books from all over the country and during my studies overseas (six of the seven continents, spending ‘dollar’ in those very-difficult years).

To this collection, books of other faculties and modern scientific fields have been added when my daughter, instead of exactly taking to my field, chose to study/research in the fields in Biotechnology / Nanotechnology / Biochemistry / Immunology / Bioinformatics.

Similarly, my son added variety because of his background in Commerce, GNIIT, MCA (ICFAI) and MBA.

The resulting collection contains a very wide range of

(i) Books in Basic, Applied and Modern Sciences / Commerce / Computers, (About 800 titles)

(ii) Scientific Papers on Wildlife, Biodiversity, Environment, Ecology, Herpetology, etc. (About 3000 publications).

(iii) About 1500 reference cards with Author, Title, Journal, Abstract of contents.

(iv) National and International Scientific Journals, Magazines relating to Wildlife, Environment, Ecology, Herpetology, etc. More than 25 types in series, some series starting from 1976 till present, and

(v) Text books / teaching material / competition courses containing education material of eternal value (about 200 titles).

These are not catalogued. But I / we know what is where.

We have started facing the crunch for space and therefore, difficulty in accessibility at times of need. Situation got worse because of changing places from Puri (1972) to Utkal Univ to Tikarpada to Hyderabad to Chambal to Hyderabad to Jashipur-Similipal to Baripada-Similipal to Bhubaneswar (2003). We are yet to pack/unpack the last time to settle in our own house (now scheduled to Dec.2010). But who will use the collection?

And, I am ageing (or, already aged; nearing 58). Some say, life starts at 60! Well, let’s see.

I had thought that I can build a working team and thus in 2004 instituted an annual ‘Puspaswini Wildlife Prize’ (in the memory of my deceased wife for the best presentation / project work in wildlife at Utkal University). All dreams do not come true!

I still look forward to some means, some support and some compensation.

I estimate that two Research Fellows (One a Biologist and the other a student of Library Science, both having good computer knowledge) and working for three to four months can catalogue the collection. (Our collection of computers is equally interesting:-- from Cyrix-1 to Pentium Dual Core – 3 PCs in working order, on which students can work.)

We will shift to our house later this month. But I cannot accommodate or can put to better use all the collection, particularly the journals and papers.

Today (05 Dec 2010, Sunday) talked to Director, Nandankanan. He will be happy if he can receive the publications and journals and all such materials I can give for the library in Nandankanan Biological Park. It has the best wildlife collection in the state of Orissa, and there is a librarian to look after the collection. The number of users is slowly but steadily increasing.

As regards certain research data files from 1970s, I will give some of these to Nimain, a promising field worker in elephant and other wildlife.

LEOPARD NUMBER AND THE NEW METHOD OF CARNIVORE MONITORING

A few months back I was reviewing a paper about tiger in north West Bengal. It is a very good account, now published in Journal of Threatened Taxa, April 2010 Issue. In my editorial note I have appreciated the effort by NTCA/WII to identify Tiger landscapes in the country in their report-2008 based on the new method of monitoring started in 2005. Well the identified landscapes appear good, promising and offer may be the ‘last’ opportunity for development for tigers. But field practices depend on many other things than the satellite images.

In the context of the ‘new method’ with which I have never been happy or comfortable when I think of Forest Guards who collect information on a wide range of parameters whose overall dimension or impacts are well borne in their mind (or are asked info about vegetation as per Champion and Seth Classification!) or the managers who are to manage large carnivores known from statistical deductions.

Our people want wildlife status in terms of some hard number, their composition, young-mother(female)-male land-tenure system, their spatial distribution and the trend. To partially satisfy that need a company has chosen to put hoardings depicting the tiger numbers left in the country. It has attracted the attention of many. That is good! But again, it is the number which is able to arouse one’s concern, not a piece of data as xx-numbers per yy-sq.km. area. Let’s get back to some better sense of data for management!

While the results of 2005-monitoring is yet to be accepted in Orissa, on Friday (30 April 2010) The Times of India carried a news that staff of Sanjay Gandhi National Park are back to the park with tiger tracer, tracing sheets etc. for taking stock of leopard population. That has become necessary to ascertain how many leopards are there in an area. The report on results of new method is silent about such information on leopard.

COLOUR ABERRATION IN TIGER: ITS BIOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION IMPLICATIONS

Based on:
SINGH, L. A. K. (1999): Born Black: The Melanistic Tiger in India. WWF-India, New Delhi, 1999.66pp.
While talking about the body colour of Tiger, we normally mean the yellow or tawny body with black stripes. Variations within normal colouration are attributed to geographical regions, the forest-habitat, and perhaps the season, as well. In this context, the white Tigers are also discussed and admired as a variation. Tigers of other colouration are extremely rare and have not been discussed in as much detail as the white tigers have been. However, there are at least fourteen known types of body colouration in Tiger, and there could be a larger intermediary range within these (Fig.1).

In the recent memory from Similipal Tiger Reserve, Orissa, aberrantly coloured tigers were first seen in early 1970s. However, most reports since then have been regarded as freaks or as the observer's imagination. Thus they remained ignored or undocumented. An incident of July 1993 in the valley of River Bhandan led to a detailed investigation about the occurrence of the phenomenon of aberrant colouration in the population gene pool of Panthera tigris as a species.

The incident
On the 21st July 1993 around 10 AM a young melanistic tigress was killed by a boy in “self-defense” with arrows. It occurred in the village Podagad in the western periphery of the Similipal Tiger Reserve. The major peculiarity in the body colou­ration was that on its back the black colour was preponderant.

The young tigress had injured "4-5 goats" during the previ­ous one week. Every time it injured a goat the victim was taken away by the villagers. On dt. 20.7.93 night the tigress entered into the cow shed of Sri Surai Besra, 67 years. On hearing some sound Surai went towards the cow shed. The tigress charged at and injured Surai on his face. In the mean time, other members of the family woke up and on shouting the tigress retreated away. The next morning at about 10 am Salku, Surai's son sighted the tigress in the adjoin­ing maize field. The tigress charged towards Salku who ran into his house and from there he aimed at and killed the tigress with three arrows. Later, there have been many reports of melanistic sightings in Similipal. In March 1997, a melanistic tiger was sighted in Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary in the (former) Dhenkanal district in Orissa.

Earlier, the skin of a melanistic tiger was recovered from smugglers in October 1992 in south Delhi. The skin measured eight and a half foot (259cm) and was displayed at the National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi in February 1993. The source of the skin is not known.

Following the incident of July 1993, information on tigers having aberrant colouration were collected from Similipal and elsewhere. These were supported with data from tiger-rearing facilities in Florida, USA and additional information from published literature.

The colour of tiger

Normally, the tiger's coat displays a combination of three colours- white, yellow and black. The background colour of the body is controlled by a set of 'agouti' genes and their alleles. 'Tabby genes' and their alleles control stripes. Built within the two series (background and stripe) some genes determine the location-to-location and quantum of expression of three main skin colours white, yellow and black. The absence of any of these colours or genetic suppression (epistasis) of the effects of genes responsible for their expression lead to colour variation in tiger.

The various forms of colouration now known in Tiger are as follows, and these colours appear to occur in the pattern of a continuous distribution curve (Fig.1).
(1). Stripeless White Tiger
(2). Tigers with Reduced stripe on white background
(3). ‘Lighter’ White Tigers
(4). 'Darker' White Tigers
(5). Golden (Pallid)
(6). Normal (light yellow)
(7). Normal
(8). Normal (deep yellow)
(9). Rufous
(10). Brown with dark stripes
(11). Brown without stripes
(12). Melanistic
(13). Blue
(14). Black

Any species of patterned cat is more likely to produce colour aberration if the local population is 'evolutionary old' or its population has reduced in number to such an extent that it leads to inbreeding and encourages 'inbreeding depression.' The reports of aberrants are not many because of various reasons. While the dismissals of observations have discouraged fresh reporting, sighting of an aberrant Tiger is an extremely rare event, and there is early elimination of aberrants from the population of normal individuals.

The appearance of Tigers with aberrant colouration can be expected as a regular but extremely rare natural phenomenon. Only in populations where inbreeding has a longer and stronger influence, the appearance of aberrants would be more frequent.


Biological Implications
All colours other than the “normal” are considered to have inappropriate adaptive value in the wild state. Besides, colour appears related to the body-size. While the normal colour of a Tiger and its size are the best compromise for Panthera tigris in the wild and are evolution-tested through Natural Selection, the White Tigers have a large body while the Black Tigers are diminutive.

Following thousands of years of evolution, struggle for existence and natural selection, a species is not meant to be an aberrant. It is against the natural order. Therefore, natural elimination of aberrants from the population is effected through (a) unsuitable structural or physiological organisation, and/or (b) early separation from the mother. This phenomenon may not be clear in captivity where rearing conditions provide environment-enrichment and the living style is without competition or struggle. Adaptive values of soft features, like body colour, have little significance in captivity.

Conservation Implications
The normal colour of a Tiger and its size are not only best suited to the species in the wild but this combination has also the public appeal that has been so essential for Tiger Conservation. Tiger shall lose public appeal if 'inbreeding depression' and evolutionary processes lead the species at any time towards increased melanism or aberrant colouration. The discovery of polymorphism and increased possibility of 'inbreeding depression' calls for greater attention to tiger-conservation because evolution may be proceeding towards enhanced melanism in tiger, as it is seen for the black leopards. Such shift is likely to occur first with marginal populations which carry a lighter genetic load with a small number of lethals and heterozygosity.

Further, the threats to Tiger continues because of growing human population, and it is not known in what exact direction the evolution of Tiger is proceeding now. The possibilities of appearance of more numbers of aberrants cannot be ruled out if populations become small, fragmented and isolated. Therefore, large and contiguous patches of forest, if necessary with corridors, may improve 'genetic exchange' and reduce genetic erosion. Conservation of Tiger requires to be aimed at reducing the possibility of genetic erosion in the wild through habitat improve­ment.

Tuesday, August 18, 2009.
MY FELLOW WETLANDERS

Last few years has been extremely good in many sense as I am able to pursue several objectives from the Wildlife Headquarters, but this has slowed down my past records as a prolific writer and paper producer. I am receiving requests for some very old papers (from 1970s time) which I find difficult to locate and oblige the request. Therefore, I am thinking of using my blog to give a list of papers I have produced, and as and when possible, produce abstracts or full papers for use by fresh students, so that they don’t spend time in rediscovering things which are already discovered. Rather, they should refine the existing knowledge, and start where it has ended somewhere for some reason. Some biographical narrations, told as a radio-talk or on some such other occasion, are still very relevant for biodiversity conservation or orienting a student or just a child for biodiversity study. I am indeed lucky as I was not very late when I started. This reminds me of experiences and first lessons besides a wetland near our home.

My Fellow wetlanders ! I am lucky to have been born in the holy town of Puri. It is still dotted with a large number of ponds of various sizes, though their qualitative degradation is very evident these days. One such pond, the Ma’jena’ Ga’dia’, was on a piece of land that belonged to Lord Jagannath. We were not bothered about pollution or quality of its water at that time. It was very dear to a large number of families apart from the Lord who used its water when He remained on the Grand Road during the car festival every year.

This pond is very intimately linked to my childhood. It provided me the first lessons on wetland – the nursery of life. I have watched the molluscs moving at their proverbial snail-speed, --- the dragon flies of various kinds busy in getting their food or in their nuptial flights, --- the water scorpions with quick short moves, --- the earthworm getting into its burrow and exuding out tiny globules of fine humus, --- the fish fingerlings surfacing to gulp-in tiny pieces of cooked and mashed rice, --- the cormorant vanishing underwater for a time long enough to test a child’s patience but surfacing back with a fish in its bill, --- the pied king fisher remaining still in the air and finally dropping down into water to come up with a fish, --- the egret, patiently watching to pick up a fish or prawn from shallow water, and ----as the night falls, the frogs with their croaking sound in the darkness of the night reminding the sighting of a water snake earlier during the day—--- a recall that was thrill enough to generate a shiver in the spines to quietly pull the bed-cover and hide the face inside ---- as if I was then very safe from all the evils of the world.

The next day, ---- forgetting about the snake or the danger of drowning inside, I spend hours in the pond learning to swim--, first with an air-pillow and then without it. Here in the Ma’jena’ Ga’dia’ I have caught my first fish with a rod, --- trapped the returning fish after the rains and ---- learnt the first lessons in fish-migration, ---- and have brought lilies for worship called Khudurukuni Puja during Sunday evenings of the month Bha’drab. I have reluctantly thrown a part of the delicious Cha’nda Chakata’ into water on Kumar Purnima evening and collected snails to throw on our thatched house ---- not realising then that it attracted owl in the night which also killed rats moving on the thatch. I have watched the maid-servant skillfully selecting and picking up edible spinach and tiny mushrooms from the shore of the Ma’jena’ Ga’dia’. Here, I have perfected the physics lesson on how best to throw a thin-flat-stone so that it skids farthest and ahead of others on the water surface, and I have created circular waves with stones thrown into water and have watched the waves spreading out to melt away in the shore. Later, as a student of biology I have collected here microscopic to macroscopic algae and a variety of insects to get an edge over my peers in the college.

Thus, the Ma’jena’ Ga’dia’ was not only the nursery of life for the diversity of a thousands of living forms, but the citadel for lessons in natural history of aquatic animals and properties of a standing water body that shaped my childhood and the early studentship. These lessons remained imprinted in me until I took up serious research on aquatic animals later in my life after completing a general post-graduation degree in Zoology.

During my field work on crocodiles in the Mahanadi, Chambal and the estuaries, I observed the ecological relationships with the Freshwater Turtles, the wetland birds, the gangetic dolphin, the otters, the water monitors, the mangroves and the sea turtles. During this time the necessity arose to study various animal tracks on the riverbanks. It was necessary to interpret tracks and find types and sizes of animals at the water edge. The tracks included those that emerged out of water and those that returned back to water. And, there were tracks of small hard-shelled turtles that emerged from the river and ended below some rock for over-wintering. The snake tracks were of various widths to give clue to their gigantic size and possible species. The snakes come from the hills of famous Padmatola in Mahanadi Ranges to drink water from the river. Only occasionally were there tracks of elephants that crossed the river and the pugmarks of tiger and leopards which came to quench their thirst.

As I look back from this stage of the journey in my life, I can only say this much that ‘for a successful career in field research with animals, it is the best approach to start from a wetland.’ If we start from water or the edge of water, we can diversify our work on biodiversities from water on to the land. In fact, “wetland conservation” is the key to success in conservation of other life-supporting ecosystems on land as well as in water.

Wetlands are unique ecosystems of watersheds. Their uniqueness in hydrology, soils and vegetation comes due to the cycling of nutrients under energy of the sun. “Wetlands” are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, and including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres.

Depending on area and location wetlands play a significant role in flood-control, sedimentation and nutrient recycling. When rivers overflow, wetlands help to absorb and slow floodwaters. This prevents damage and loss to property and life. They also absorb excess nutrients, sediments and even the pollutants before these reach rivers.

Wetlands are shrinking or disappearing. India has signed the RAMSAR Convention to protect waterfowls in wetlands, and have created a network of wetland sanctuaries by launching the crocodile and turtle conservation schemes, but the new concern is for maintaining a ground supply of drinking water to which the survival of mankind is linked.

Nurseries of life are the mother of all great civilisations. Civilisations have started, developed and flourished on riverbanks, and sometimes fought-over and disappeared to give way to new civilisations. Great towns of the world have flourished over the advantages derived from wetlands. Alternately, the impoverishment in quality of life can be linked to the loss of quality and character in wetlands. The fate of Yamuna for Delhi or Ganges for Allahabad and Kanpur are the often-cited illustrations. These are warnings to all other similarly located towns.

As Prof. M. S. Swaminathan has said, the complex schemes for rice production in Burma, Thailand, Java and the Mekong basin are illustrations of the association between human communities and wetlands. The disappearance of wetlands is profoundly changing the microclimate of localities and generating concern for human survival. There is a strong link between rise in local temperature and the disappearance of wetlands. Let’s preserve the nurseries of life against the growth of concrete jungles.

My first childhood lessons in swimming were the last, but a man can never forget his swimming lessons. In fact it helped me later in life to remain afloat and steer to the bank during my studies in the rivers Mahanadi and Chambal. At this stage of my life, irrespective of the questions of survival of human cultures and civilisations, I only wish that let the world continue to have some good and clean wetlands to sustain nurseries of life and offer scope for children to learn their first lessons in natural history observation.